The Multiparty System: History

Ancient Democracy

Political groupings in ancient Greek democracies and in the Roman Republic were typically formed around leaders whose wealth, oratorical skills or achievements could sway the citizenry around issues of war, trade, property and public services.

Factions often formed around two main societal interests — the wealthy aristocracy and common property holders, traders and artisans. These groups held different views of democracy somewhat in the manner political parties do today. The most famous Athenian politician, Pericles, won enduring majorities of the citizens' assembly in part through his success at extending political participation to the less wealthy and in part through his adept management ─ for a time ─ of Athens' foreign policy.

Unlike Athens, Rome was governed through layers of representative institutions and officials according to class and wealth. The dominant law-making institution was the Senate, which represented patricians, or the elite landowning class. The Plebeian Council represented the rest of the citizenry, including smaller landowners and merchants. In this setting, there were no political parties but rather supporters or opponents of individual politicians based on personal interests or on their views regarding the balance of Senatorial privilege and the power and rights of plebeians.

British Political Parties

The first modern political parties arose in Great Britain out of the English Civil Wars and became defined in the Exclusion Crisis of 1679-81. Those known as Tories defended absolutist prerogatives and hereditary succession. Whigs favored greater constitutional limits on the monarchy. Their history offers an example of political party development.

The first modern political parties arose in Great Britain out of the English Civil Wars and became defined in the Exclusion Crisis of 1679-81. Those known as Tories defended absolutist prerogatives and hereditary succession. Whigs favored greater constitutional limits on the monarchy.

The Exclusion Crisis occurred when Whigs sought to bar the brother of the restored king, Charles II, from succession to the monarchy due to his adoption of Roman Catholicism and fears that he would again try to assert absolute powers over parliament — the cause of the English Civil Wars earlier that century. In the minority at that time, the Whigs’ effort failed. James II assumed the throne in 1685 on his brother’s death. But the Whigs’ fears were soon realized as James II sought to transgress parliament’s authority. Acting now in the majority after a new election, the faction acted to depose James II in the Glorious Revolution of 1688. They invited his Protestant daughter, Mary, and her Protestant husband, William of Orange and King of the Netherlands, to assume the throne, uniting the two kingdoms for a brief period. Whigs then passed bills asserting power over monarchical succession, parliamentary authority and citizens’ rights (known as the English Bill of Rights).

Whigs and Tories vied for power thereafter as political parties. Whigs were dominant for much of the 18th century and Tories in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. In John Stuart Mill’s categories, Whigs were the “change” party, supporting parliamentary supremacy, expanding the franchise and free trade. The Tories were the “stability” party protecting rural, aristocratic and Church interests as well as the prerogatives of the monarchy. There were also independent members. They would be central to ending the slave trade and abolition of slavery, gaining support from leaders of both Whigs and, at times, Tories.

New Parties and Platforms

In the mid-19th century, Tories assumed the name Conservative Party, while the Whigs merged with other groups to form the Liberal Party. The latter was dominant in the early 20th century but declined after 1918. The Labour Party, founded in 1900, was Britain’s first mass party, backed by the trade union movement. Early on, it coalesced with the Liberals. In this broad period, the Chartist, trade union and women suffragist movements were essential drivers of reforms to achieve expanded suffrage, labor rights and a fuller democracy.

In this broad period, the Chartist, trade union and women suffragist movements were essential drivers of reforms to achieve expanded suffrage, labor rights and a fuller democracy.

The Conservatives, who now joined the interests of both business and the aristocracy, became the dominant party in 1922 for more than two decades. But the minority Labour Party joined both a pre-war unity government and Winston Churchill‘s World War II cabinet. In the wake of both the Great Depression and the war, Labour won a transformational election in July 1945 to introduce a socialist program and the foundations of the welfare state. Much of this (like the National Health Service) remains in place, even if cut back under later Conservative governments.

Political power has alternated between Conservatives and Labour between 1945 and today. In the recent period, Labour held power from 1997 to 2010 and the Conservatives from 2010 to 2024. Other parties have also played a role. From 2010-14, the Conservatives required a coalition with the Liberal Democrats, then Britain's third largest party, to have a parliamentary majority. Also, regional parties in Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales grew in size with “devolution” and establishment of regional legislatures in 1997. This added to the national parliament's political diversity. For example, the Scottish National Party won a large majority of Scotland's seats in the 2015 general election to became parliament’s third largest party (47 out of 650 seats). It kept that status in the next election.

In the wake of both the Great Depression and the war, Labour won a transformational election in July 1945 to introduce a socialist program and the foundations of the welfare state. Much of this (like the National Health Service) remains in place, even if cut back under later Conservative governments.

In July 2024, the Conservatives lost a landslide election to a revived Labour Party, which won a record high 412 of 677 seats in the "first past the post" system on 34 percent of the national vote. The Conservatives fell from 41 percent to 23 percent nationally and won just 121 seats, a record low. Liberal Democrats regained their third position with its own record 72 seats, while the SNP lost most of its seats. The far-right Reform party won the third most votes nationally but won just 5 seats. The Greens and regional parties from Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland also won seats. In all, dissatisfaction with traditional parties was high. A record 42 percent of the vote nationally went to parties other than Labour and the Conservatives.

Political Parties in the U.S.

In the United States, the two-party dominant system emerged quickly. Its history is also instructive. The Federalist Party began after 1789 in support of Alexander Hamilton’s policies to establish a strong national government and industrial economy at the outset of George Washington’s presidency. The Democratic Republican Party arose to oppose those policies in 1792 and to support what it termed “republicanism,” mainly state autonomy and agricultural interests. Federalists held sway under the independent presidencies of Washington and John Adams. Democratic Republicans, with solid support of southern slave states, gained dominance with Thomas Jefferson’s victory over Adams in the 1800 presidential election.

The Federalist Party declined after that and the Democratic Republicans fractured. Its main faction, the Democratic Party, gained dominance in the 1828 presidential election victory of Andrew Jackson. While Democrats acted to expand the franchise and favored policies for “the common man,” the party was based also on white supremacism. Jackson and his party acted to forcibly relocate Native Americans, deny free Blacks the franchise and support slave state interests. The Whig Party formed in opposition in 1834 and won presidential elections in 1840 and 1848 but foundered as it split along sectional lines due to compromises on the territorial expansion of slavery.

Contending With the Slave Power

In this time, the Slave Power grew to 15 states and the District of Columbia. It dominated all branches of government due to the Constitution’s framework and accommodations made by both political parties with slave state interests. 

The Republican Party, begun in 1854, was the first major party to fully oppose the expansion of slavery. Previously, an abolition movement of free Blacks and whites acted mostly outside of political parties. Abolition and opposition to slavery's expansion had only minor support in small third parties. Starting in 1856, large parts of the abolition movement supported the Republican Party, especially those called Radical Republicans, the first faction advocating for total abolition of slavery and full equality and manhood suffrage for Blacks.

The Republican Party, begun in 1854, was the first major party to fully oppose the expansion of slavery. Previously, an abolition movement of free Blacks and whites acted mostly outside of political parties. Abolition and opposition to slavery's expansion had only minor support in small third parties. 

In the presidential election of 1860, Republican Abraham Lincoln defeated two pro-slavery southern candidates and the Democrats’ Stephen Douglas, who had led the effort to allow territorial expansion of slavery. While the Republican platform limited itself to opposing slavery's expansion, the Slave Power considered Lincoln’s election an existential threat. Eleven southern states seceded to establish the Confederate States of America based on slavery and white supremacy. The victory of the Union in the ensuing Civil War brought about a re-founding of the United States. The 13th, 14th and 15th Amendments to the US Constitution abolished slavery, established equal birthright and citizenship rights and granted full manhood suffrage. (See also "The US Experience" in History in Free Elections.)

The New Two-Party Dominant System

Since then, Republicans and Democrats have been the two dominant parties vying for power. The Republicans were the Union party in the Civil War and committed itself to the abolition of slavery and support for equal rights and redistributionist national economic policies during post-Civil War Reconstruction. The Democratic Party, still calling itself the party of “the common man,” was the "peace" party during the Civil War, willing to accommodate the continuation of slavery, and afterward opposed equal rights for Blacks and advocated a return to "states’ rights." Democrats in the South instituted a regime of racist violence and segregation that took hold as Republicans abandoned Reconstruction following the "Compromise of 1876."

Over time, Republicans, while still with a civil rights platform, evolved to become more a pro-business party supporting free market policies and opposing government intervention in the economy. Democrats asserted themselves even more as a working man’s party, but much of the party still protected the regime of segregation. Third parties and independents affected national politics (most notably the Progressive Party and the Socialist Party) but America remained a two-party dominant system with power rotating in both the presidency and legislature.

The Parties Switch Roles

In response to the Great Depression, Democratic President Franklin Roosevelt brought about a major political transformation in the 1930s with the New Deal ─ similar to the UK’s Labour Party after 1945. The New Deal included labor reforms, a large increase in government programs and a shift against discrimination. Responding to pressure from civil rights leaders and organizations, Presidents Roosevelt and Truman signed desegregation orders in defense industries, the federal government and the armed forces.

On their own, political parties did not act decisively to confront segregation or unequal suffrage, just as they had not acted to abolish slavery without the organized pressure of the Abolition Movement. The Women's Suffrage and Civil Rights Movements were necessary to exert pressure on politicians to obtain universal suffrage and equal civil and voting rights. Under pressure of these social movements, representatives of both parties voted for women’s suffrage and an end to segregation and discrimination.

The GOP intensified its pro-business and free market policies, while Democrats acted to expand New Deal programs and represent trade union interests and workers.

A full historical switch of the parties started to take shape in the 1960s. Democrats became more a northern and urban party representing diverse populations. The party pressed for greater civil, minority and women’s rights. Republicans became more a southern-based and rural party and generally opposed expansion of rights for minorities and women. The GOP intensified its pro-business and free market policies, while Democrats acted to expand New Deal programs and represent trade union interests and workers.

European Political Parties

As in Great Britain, political parties in continental Europe could be roughly grouped into conservative, liberal and social democratic or labor parties.

Socialist movements emerged in the decades after the 1848 Revolutions. As countries with more representative governments expanded suffrage, socialist groups evolved as electoral parties, often under the banner of Social Democrat. They had radical platforms for economic transformation but generally pushed for reforms like manhood and universal suffrage, trade union rights and welfare programs that redistributed wealth and provided basic services to citizens. They were the first parties to draw mass support from grassroots party organizations and trade unions.

National conservative, agrarian and liberal parties were dominant in the early periods of representative government. National conservative and agrarian parties represented the traditional classes owning property. Liberal and Christian Democratic parties had pro-free market platforms and represented more industrial, commercial and small property interests. Other groups competed within parliamentary systems, including regional, national independence and ethnic parties advocating for self-governance.

The Multiparty System: Pre- and Post-War Periods

Prior to World War I, national conservative, agrarian and liberal parties generally dominated but social democratic and socialist parties gained greater representation as suffrage expanded. In the inter-war period, the range of left and right parties competed and formed different governing coalitions. However, these coalitions were now challenged by non-democratic fascist and communist parties (see below), which brought an end to peace.

In the post-World War II period, Eastern European countries that had gained independence after 1918 were occupied by the Soviet Union. Communist party dominant systems were imposed there (see also below). In Western, Northern and Southern Europe, two main political blocs formed along the "left-right" political spectrum described in Essential Principles. On the left side were Social Democratic or Socialist Parties and on the right side Conservative and Christian Democratic parties. In some countries, "Eurocommunist" parties that acted less in lock-step with the Soviet Union emerged and sometimes acted with the left bloc.

The Great Depression and World War II created a broad consensus in Western Europe among both left and right blocs of parties to establish welfare states and adopt policies of government involvement in rebuilding their countries’ economies. Most parties on the left and right of the spectrum adopted platforms supporting democratic norms (through the Council of Europe), a security alliance (through NATO), and economic cooperation (through the European Community system).

Left and right parties have continued to alternate in power with different trends in different regions. In general, social democratic parties had greater dominance in the ‘50s, ‘60s and ‘70s, while conservative or liberal (pro-free market) parties gained dominance in the ‘80s, ‘90s and aughts. In the latter period, conservative parties often acted to limit or “reform” welfare state policies. Following the collapse of Soviet Bloc communist regimes in 1989 and the restoration of independence and democracy in Eastern European countries, a range of democratic parties emerged. In some countries, national conservative or liberal (free market) parties were dominant. In others, former communist parties that re-organized as social democratic parties won power.

Fascist Parties

Starting in the 1920s, fascist movements arose espousing a form of extreme and militarist nationalism and politics of racial superiority. They gained support by participating in elections but they then used extra-parliamentary means to seize power and impose full dictatorship. This happened first in Italy, then in Germany and on the other side of the world, Japan. These three countries established the Anti-Comintern Pact in the mid-1930s (in opposition to the Soviet-led Communist International or Comintern). Then, however, Hitler’s Germany allied with the Soviet Union in 1939 to jointly invade Poland and launch the Second World War. After Nazi Germany broke this joint pact and invaded the USSR, the latter joined with the Allied powers (the United States, United Kingdom, Free French and others) to ultimately defeat the Axis powers. Fascist parties in Germany, France, Italy and Japan were outlawed afterwards during the Allied occupations and European reconstruction.

Countries in Southern Europe (Greece, Portugal and Spain) and elsewhere also adopted fascism as a governing model but did not take formal part in the Axis alliance (others, like Hungary and Romania, did). The fascist regimes in southern Europe ended only in the 1970s.

Communist Parties

Starting in the mid-19th century, more radical communist and anarchist movements contrasted themselves to socialist and social democratic parties by advocating revolutionary violence to seize power, end capitalism and establish social or state ownership of all property.

These were minor parties in most European countries. In Russia, however, a Communist faction (the Bolsheviks) seized power by force in November 1917 to overthrow a reformist government created earlier after abdication of the tsar. The Bolshevik Party consolidated full power in a civil war and reconstituted the Russian Empire as the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.

The USSR was established according to the Leninist principle of “democratic centralism” whereby decisions of the Communist (Bolshevik) Party — and ultimately the party’s General Secretary — had to be followed. Under Vladimir Lenin’s and then Joseph Stalin’s leadership, the USSR emerged as one of the most brutal dictatorships in history (resulting in an estimated 20 million unnatural deaths according to the Black Book of Communism). 

The Soviet Union aided successful government takeovers by guerilla armies in China, Vietnam, North Korea, and Cuba (see Country Studies). In these countries, communist parties also imposed centralized dictatorships along the Soviet model, with a similar or even greater level of brutality. The communist parties in these countries have continued in absolute power until today.

Communist parties in the Soviet Bloc were largely discredited following the collapse of communist rule in Central and Eastern Europe and the USSR in 1989–91. Some communist parties, however, successfully reconstituted themselves as social democratic parties and won elections to return to power by democratic means. In other parts of the world, including Europe, small communist parties continue to operate within democratic states, but generally have little influence.

Political Parties: Other Continents

In other parts of the world where representative government and democracy emerged, political parties developed in distinct ways according to their countries’ political history. Still, they often have similar characteristics and dynamics as those in the United States and Europe. Examples follow.

Latin America

In Latin America, as countries gained independence from Spanish, French and Portuguese rule in the early part of the 19th century, most adopted presidential systems. Although there were representative assemblies, caudillismo, or strong man rule, was the norm. Conservative parties representing propertied interests dominated legislatures. Liberal and left parties emerged as stronger political forces in many countries at different points later in the century to bring about expanded suffrage, constitutional limits, respect for rights, labor reforms and redistribution of property. 

These gains would frequently be reversed in cycles by military coups and re-adoption of caudillismo. Such rule was often supported by the United States as protection for business and geopolitical interests, especially during the Cold War. The U.S., however, also supported democracy in other countries (as in Costa Rica and Venezuela.)

In the post-World War II period, populist parties with fascistic characteristics also emerged (such as Peronism in Argentina) as did revolutionary and communist parties. In some countries, communist parties competed electorally and influenced policies by joining socialist governments that were later overthrown by US-supported military coups (as in Chile and Guatemala). In others, they were the basis for organizing armed campaigns to gain dictatorial power (as, successfully, in Cuba in 1959 and Nicaragua in 1979).

Today, Latin America and the Caribbean have largely overcome dictatorship. Most countries have democratically elected governments.

Today, Latin America and the Caribbean have largely overcome dictatorship, with the major exceptions of Cuba, Nicaragua, Haiti and Venezuela. Most countries have democratically elected governments. Social democratic, Christian Democratic, Social Christian and more individualistic parties contest for power in elections. Many countries, however, must overcome long legacies of caudillismo, military dictatorship and entrenched discrimination of Indigenous and Black communities (see, for example, Country Studies of Bolivia and Guatemala). After a continental trend towards right-wing and market-oriented parties after 1989, more recently there has been a trend towards more left-oriented and socially liberal parties (as in Brazil, Chile, Columbia, Honduras and Mexico).

Asia and Africa After Colonialism

On other continents, political parties often evolved from anticolonial and national independence movements or formed to represent new or existing religious, ethnic and other interest groups in newly independent countries. Still, they also often occupied positions from left to right on the political spectrum.

In India, for example, the major parties today are the secular, left-leaning Indian National Congress, which began in the 19th century to advocate liberal reform and was the major political force for independence from British rule, and the right-leaning Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), which was founded in the 20th century as a Hindu nationalist party. The former, dominant in the decades after independence, adopted more socialist or social democratic polices and non-alignment in the Cold War period. The latter remained a nationalist party but evolved also to promote more free-market economics. In power over the last decade, the BJP has moved farther right, adopting more illiberal and chauvinist governance that discriminates against Muslim and other minority populations. In the 2024 election, the BJP won a strong plurality but lost its majority in the parliament and dominant position (winning 240 of 543 seats). It now must act more in coalition.

On other continents, political parties often evolved from anticolonial and national independence movements or formed to represent new or existing religious, ethnic and other interest groups in newly independent countries.

In another major example, the African National Congress (ANC) in South Africa transformed itself from the leading resistance organization to the apartheid regime into the dominant party in free elections once apartheid had been overthrown in the early 1990s. The ANC has governed with socialist and pro-free market factions competing within it and alternating in leadership positions. In its 2024 election, however, the ANC lost appreciable support due to corruption and lack of performance in providing basic services and jobs. It won only a plurality (40 percent) and was forced to form a coalition government with a number of other parties having liberal economic positions or representing regional and ethnic interests (see Country Study).

Elsewhere in Africa, parties that emerged from united independence movements were also dominant. In some, like Botswana and Kenya, opposition parties emerged to limit majoritarian rule (see Country Studies). In others, dictatorial systems emerged, as in Sudan and Nigeria. The latter has more recently held successive multiparty elections.

In many countries in Asia, political parties also often defined themselves by their history in relation to gaining independence and overcoming colonial rule (see, for example, Country Studies of Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore). Elsewhere, Japan’s Liberal Democratic Party, with conservative and liberal factions, has dominated since the end of the US military occupation following World War II. But left parties compete freely and once held power in a governing coalition. In South Korea, left-liberal and conservative parties have alternated power since the end of a military dictatorship.

The Middle East and North Africa

Although democracy has been limited in most of the Middle East and North Africa, parties emerged from the colonial period to advocate nationalist, monarchist or Islamist ideologies (see, for example, Country Study of Morocco). Ba’ath socialist parties gained power in Syria and Iraq and allied fully with the Soviet Union (see Country Study in this section). These ended up being instruments for one-party rule by authoritarian leaders.

The one country in the Middle East to establish a stable democracy with a diverse multiparty system was Israel, founded in 1948 as a homeland for the Jewish people. It is facing a severe crisis today as a new ruling coalition has adopted extremist policies challenging its democratic institutions and discriminating against or denying rights to Palestinians within Israel and much more so in occupied territories (see Country Study in this section). Tunisia is the other country in the region recently to have had successive multi-party elections following the Arab Spring revolts in 2011 and the overthrow of dictatorship. In 2021, however, a newly elected president suspended and then dissolved parliament. He has adopted increasingly repressive policies in preparation for presidential elections in the fall of 2024 (see Country Study in Freedom of Association).

Recent Trends

As seen from the above history ─ and in Democracy Web’s Country Studies ─ the existence of multiple political parties that can compete in fair elections is common to all democracies.

In the most recent period, Freedom House has tracked 18 years of decline in overall freedom rankings in its annual survey, with declines in the multiparty system being a key indicator. One factor has been the rise of nationalist, chauvinist and “populist” parties in numerous democracies across the world. This has often led to democratic "backsliding" and even anti-democratic governance.

[T]he existence of multiple political parties that can compete in fair elections is common to all democracies.

In several countries, some parties have established what political scientists call “electoral autocracies” after achieving power. In such countries, a dominant political party asserts control over media, the judiciary and election administration and perpetuates itself in power by preventing other parties from competing fairly in elections. Some examples are the Fidesz party in Hungary, the Unified Socialist Party of Venezuela and the Justice and Development Party in Turkey.

This phenomenon has reached the United States. Much of the Republican Party supported the chauvinist and nationalist policies of Donald Trump’s presidency (such as attempting to ban Muslims from the country and harshly restrict immigration). The party also broadly protected Trump’s abuse of power in two impeachment trials, including for attempting insurrection (see also "A President Without Precedent" in Accountability and Transparency). Indeed, two-thirds of Republicans in the House of Representatives and seven Senators supported Trump’s efforts to reject certified results of the 2020 presidential election even after he incited a mob attack on the Capitol aimed at interrupting the counting of Electoral College votes. At present, Trump is the Republican candidate for the presidency in the 2024 election despite being indicted in federal and state courts for conspiracy to overturn the 2020 election.

At the same time, democracy is showing a measure of resilience. Notwithstanding the violence surrounding it, a peaceful transfer of power took place in the United States in January 2021. This followed an election with record participation. In Malaysia (the "partly free" Country Study in this section), a pro-reform party won a strong plurality in elections in 2022. The party overcame decades of efforts by a ruling party to rig electoral conditions, including twice imprisoning its leader. He is now prime minister. Also in 2022, in Brazil, a hard-right president, Jair Bolsonaro, was defeated in his bid for re-election despite attempting, similarly as in the U.S., to subvert the electoral process. The candidate of the center-left party narrowly won the election and was inaugurated. Bolsonaro is now barred from running for office in the next election and is being investigated for conspiring to carry out a coup to prevent the transfer of power as well as for his role in inciting an armed attack on government buildings in January 2023.